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A

• A Priori, based on something known: working from something that is already known or self evident to arrive at a conclusion" - so some (many?) researchers come to the table with things that they believe they already know and will tend to fit the outcomes within that.

• ACCOMMODATION HYPOTHESIS, Idea that women tend to be more careful and accurate in their verbal and non-verbal communications with others as have been socialised to be watchful - feminists consider this to be outcome of power relations in society. (see non-verbal behaviour)
• ACTOR NETWORK (THEORY), Emphasises the agency of non-humans 'material-semiotic' method. Concept is to maps relations that are simultaneously material (between things) and 'semiotic' (between concepts). It assumes that many relations are both material and 'semiotic' (e.g. the interactions in a bank involve both people and their ideas, and technologies. Together these form a single network).
• ADAPTATION, Evolutionary sense - characteristic where a total fitness benefit outweighs costs and confers net advantage, See Natural Selection
• AGENCY, Capacity of individuals and groups to take action to direct lives (initiation of action), see autonomy, determinism,
• AMBIVALENCE, Klein - child experiences this when begins to recognize disparity between internal objects and ‘out there’ conflict results, between love for mother and guilt about destructive impulses - next stage in healthy development is depressive position., See Klein, depressive position,
• ANALOGUE, A representation in a similar but different form to original -,
• ANCHORAGE, a term used by Barthes to describe the interaction of words and visual texts. A photograph, according to Barthes is polysemic (i.e. open to a range of possible meanings). Ordinarily text is added, perhaps in the form of a caption or an advertising slogan, to 'anchor' the meaning, to lead the reader towards the preferred reading of the visual text. More broadly, anchorage of an image's meaning can occur not only through words, but, say, through the juxtaposition of two images.
• ANIMA, Embodied soul, organic, transient and ‘animal-like’ embedded in society - SSP based primarily upon this tradition. See Animus, Cartesian Dualism
• ANIMUS, Eternal soul, immortal, according to some philosophies, aspect that sets humans above animals, individualistic focus, PSP is grounded in this tradition.,
• ANTHROPOLOGY, The study or ‘science’ of people in their own societies ‘as animals’. See ethnography
• ANXIETY, In psychodynamic theory - objective anxiety is caused by real events; signal anxiety is generated to alert to intrusion of past or expected trauma. See psychodynamic; defence mechanisms
• ATTITUDES, Problem with Attitude-Behaviour Link - difference between what people say in a survey and what they ‘really’ think. Also issue of dilemmatic and conflicting attitudes - consider social representations or discursive psychology as alternative.
• AUTHENTICITY, from an existential perspective is facing facts of choice and death and taking responsibility for decisions and actions. See existential perspective.
• AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY, According to psychodynamic theory - a particular type of personality that tend to be highly prejudiced and fanatic; (socialized within strict and rigid family/culture where affection conditional upon obedience and conformity), See Adorno.
• AUTONOMY, effective (real) power of individuals and groups - ability to exercise choice via reflexive and potentially responsible action, see autonomy, determinism

C

• CARTESIAN DUALISM, Concept originating from ideas of Anima and Animus, developed by Descartes - that the human individual is split into mind (res cogitans and brain (res extensa) and that mind (or consciousness) is a manifestation of the human soul - suggests a fundamental distinction between animals and humans. Anima, Animus,
• CAUSAL EXPLANATION, Accounting for particular aspect by cause and effect, problems in studying human behaviour as probably multiple causation., See Functional explanation
• CLOSURE, 1) In Gestalt psychology the term refers to the way that we fill in gaps where there is missing information in a stimulus.
• CLOSURE, 2) In the analysis of texts, the term refers to ideological closure, which means the strategies used in the text to lead the reader to make sense of the text according to a particular ideological framework. The idea of ideological closure is useful because it leads us to examine how a text has been constructed to lead to a particular reading and exclude other possible readings.
• COGNITIONS, Patterns of thinking – with an emphasis on brain processes.
• COGNITIVISM, View that individuals observe world, interpret and represent ‘it’ internally - that representation is then given linguistic meaning. Meanings are seen as ‘facts in the head’, See mutualism
• COMMUNALITY, Overlap with others - validates our model, See Kellys PCT
• CONFORMITY, Tendency of people, particularly when in groups to align (themselves) with or acquire the characteristics of the group norm., See norms, Asch, Sherif
• CONSCIOUSNESS, Attentional aspects of experience, active thoughts, perceptions and awareness. Differing views depending on perspective as to whether private and including sense of self and will (James) or Public/social (soc. Con.), See James, Donaldson.
• CONSCIOUS AWARENESS, A focus on the attentive aspect of present awareness,
• CONSENSUS, the word means a generally shared agreement. The term is used in particular by Marxist critics of the media, who argue that the media operate to create a consensus in society (or at least an illusion of consensus) that the norms, laws and rules in our society are the only 'right' ones, which any right-thinking member of our society must accept.
• CONSTITUTIVE NATURE, of discourse - means talk and text not merely ABOUT something but a part of that process. Language not neutral, but a process of constructing own world and realities, See Garfinkle. Discourse Psychology, Wetherell & Maybin
• CONSTRUCTIONISM, See also constructivism and social constructionism.
• CONSTRUCTIVE ALTERNATIVISM, Making sense of experience in different ways - Assumes autonomy in construing world- person as ‘scientist’ - premise underlying PCT, See Kellys PCT
• CONSTRUCTIVISM, Similar to constructionism but with additional nuances - meaningful versions are necessarily incomplete, pluralistic and contradictory, this I insight can be used as an analytical devise to deconstruct ‘facts’ (Woolgar), See social constructionism
• CONSTRUCTION, no fixed reality but conceptualise from particular perspective, result will inform and re conceptualizes frameworks, See mutual construction, social construction,
• COOPERATIVENESS PRINCIPLE, In conversations we are expected to be as informative as required and be truthful, relevant, informative and unambiguous - link to attributions.
• CORPUS, Corpus: a body or collection of materially homogeneous texts that are held to be complete and thematically unified,
• CONTENT ANALYSIS, A method for analyzing qualitative data that tends to reduce the data to categories and numbers (e.g. measures the number of times a particular concept is mentioned),
• CULTURAL IMPERIALISM, the thesis that 'Western' (especially American) cultural values are being forced on non-Western societies, to which they are spread most especially by the mass media. E.G.Herbert Schiller argues forcefully that the US-inspired spread of 'free trade' and 'free speech' since the Second World War has, in view of the imbalance of economic power, worked to the advantage of the US.
• CRITICAL PARADIGM, Based on critical theory. Emancipatory aims, counter managerialism (Realist assumptions. Objective ontology, subjective epistemology),
• CRITICAL REALISM, A realist approach which accepts that social processes are open to interpretation.

D

• DECONSTRUCTION, To take apart, consider what is assumed, inevitable, seemingly obvious, natural etc., to consider what is unquestioned or not allowed to be questioned, opposites and rhetoric. Issues about what deconstruction ‘is’ and whether it is possible to define or call it a method.
• DEFENSE MECHANISMS, Actions and perceptions are distorted (by ego) to protect self, include repression, regression, denial, splitting and projection. See psychodynamic theory, projection,
• DETERMINISM, Processes which influence and constrain.
• DIALECTICAL, two way process including conflictual element (also art of arguing, logical dexterity!).
• DIALECTIC DETERMINISM, Constraining processes are also impacted back on other party - interactive,
• DILEMMATIC, Showing evidence of dilemma, e.g. in discourse,
• DISCIPLINE, kind of instruction in a subject, or branch of knowledge, includes formalised x ontology & method, and maintained by society, requires knowledge base (subject ontology seems to differ x perspective), see ontology, perspective, theory,
• DISCOURSE, particular ways of talking, e.g. scientific v. layman’s discourse – term used very broadly sometimes.
• DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, A specific way of analysing talk and text. Considers functions of language and how people construct the self and others. Also assesses societal influences on discursive practice.
• DISCOURSE PSYCHOLOGY/ APPROACH, Focus on talk and texts of social life. Discourse has Action orientation, Constitutive Nature, & Indexicality Language as practical activity, form of action, and rhetorical in nature. See Billig 91,
• DISCURSIVE PRODUCT, Produced by meaning, talk and text, Social constructionists include identity as a discursive product. See identity, self, social constructionism.
• DISTRIBUTED SELF, From Social constructionism, no Cartesian dualism, self mutual constitution of mind and brain, individual and social. Self fluid, open, emergent, merged, multiple and mutually constructed, particularly via discourse. See social constructionism.
• DOMAIN, One way of dividing up a discipline into fields of thought or action, attempts to reduce the tendency to make hierarchies e.g. with ‘levels’ of analysis. See discipline, and intra-personal, inter-personal, group & social domains.

E

• ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY, Primarily used for experimental paradigms, a test of how well the research accesses real life processes. See validity, internal, external validity
• EMPIRICAL, ‘Factual’ evidence.
• EMPIRICISM, Observation of factual evidence has primacy over theory, theories and explanations should be constructed by starting with the facts.
• EPISTEMOLOGY, is the form that knowledge takes, what knowledge is and how it arises and includes assumptions and methodologies, E.G. Nomothetic, hermeneutic, ideographic & transformational.
• ESSENTIALISM, is the idea that there is something inherent in the object of study that has direct causal influence and has a particular nature/quality.
• ETHNOGRAPHY, Method based on detailed observation (usually participant) of a culture or group within a culture - aims to record events in disciplined and rigorous way. See qualitative methods.
• EQUITY THEORY, An exchange theory of relationships, (Hatfield, Van Yperen & Buunk) suggests equal outcomes must have equal effort. Predicts people will feel guilt if unequal and will be a relationship between reward/cost balance and satisfaction. Helps explain communal type relationships but primarily western phenomenon.
• ETHICS (IN RESEARCH), Professional approach to the research which ensures that the key role of ‘do no harm’ is maintained - includes informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, right to withdraw etc.
• EVOLUTIONARY THEORY, Type of exchange theory based on natural selection (Kenrick & Trost), suggests satisfaction criteria will vary by sex, women will prefer resource acquisition potential in men, and men will prefer reproductive capacity in women.,
• EXPERIENCING SUBJECT, Individuals own meaning systems, constructions, memories etc. - vital for Humanistic psychology. For Psychodynamic theories, important for access to raw data (including dreams and fantasies) but is accepted most material inaccessible, and needs interpretation of all aspects of experience., See various perspectives
• EX NOMINATION, a term coined by Roland Barthes to refer to the way in which the bourgeoisie remains 'anonymous' by succeeding in presenting its ideology to us as 'common sense'. , Barthes
• EXISTENTIAL PERSPECTIVE, European philosophy, influencing humanistic psychology Focus on process of being, self as subject. Includes issues of Mortality (time), Choice and Meaning - also Authenticity. See Sartre, Humanistic perspective, and Authenticity
• EXPERIENTIAL PERSPECTIVE, Viewed from a persons own subjective experience - Stevens mix of phenomenological, existential and humanistic perspectives.
• EXPLANATION, Combination of theory and evidence, influenced by social values, which accounts for a particular event or process - often aimed at cause but difficulties of multi-causality. Stress on objectivity. Many prefer interpretive explanation leading to understanding. Social constructionists argue all types explanation require interpretation.
• EXPLANATORY STYLE, Attributional style - tendency for individuals to provide certain kinds of explanation - Internal-External, Stable-Unstable, Global-Specific.
• EXTERNAL VALIDITY, Extent to which information reflects what it purports to - with observation, problems include observer subjectivity, noticing specific aspects due to own values, and being influenced by or influencing the situation - the interpretation may then be incorrect. With experiments (and many surveys) the findings do not reflect what is happening in the ‘real’ context of work., See ecological validity, internal validity, and validity

F

• FANTASY, an inner reflection of images and events with associated feelings - conscious sequences - also psychodynamic theory.
• FEMINIST APPROACHES, Broad range from liberal (equality) to radical (critical theory). All share focus on gender issues and inequalities.
• FINITENESS, Awareness of mortality, See Existentialism
• FRAGMENTED SELF, Psychodynamic theory - self not as contained and unitary as supposed - differing types of internal splitting x theory.
• FRANKFURT SCHOOL, Institute for Social Research founded 1923. The School's members were Horkheimer, Adorno, Benjamin, Marcus, and, more recently, Jurgen Habermas. The members of the *school were exiled by the Nazis to the US and, with the exception of Marcuse, returned post-war. They were concerned to develop critical theory from the works of Karl Marx,
• FUNCTIONALISM, sometimes defined very broadly as ‘objective’ and compared therefore to interpretive approaches. Varying types of functionalism (see below), including Burrell & Morgan’s concept of functionalist paradigm, which emphasises rational explanations, pragmatism, problem-orientation and finding practical solutions – tends to be posed as rooted in positivism.,
• FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION, Accounts for relative advantages/disadvantages based on evolutionary aspects, particularly natural selection/genetic perpetuation of the species. Functionalist sociologists say that you can look at society in the same way. There are different parts of society e.g. the family, education, religion, law and order, etc. but these different parts have to be seen in terms of the contribution that they make to the functioning of the whole of society. This ‘organic analogy’ sees the different parts of society working together to form a social system in the same way that the different parts of a human organism form a system that makes a body., See causal explanation, biological perspective
• FLOW EXPERIENCE, Enjoyable and goal directed concentration of consciousness - opposite to entropy. See Csiksentmihalyi
• FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ‘ERROR’, Tendency to overestimate importance of person rather than context, in causal behaviour. Tendency to believe own behaviour due to context but others behaviour due to individual aspects.

G

• GENRE, A sort or type of something – usually fairly loose categories, used a lot in art and literature but increasingly in communications studies in the management sphere. (Latin root is general, generate etc.,) tends to be defined as ‘of the same sort’. Genre systems, as discussed particularly by Orlikowski, are developed when people use specific modes of communication, such as email, memos, and business letters – there are norms regarding how these are used. Mechanism draws attention to patterns of repetition (and variation) in the use of these forms of communication. Changed meaning a little to focus more on rhetoric – how the norms of communication through these different forms are manipulated to achieve certain ends. Underlying messages are sent when one uses a formal letter compared to an email, for example.
• GOOD ENOUGH MOTHERING, Winnicot - Object Relations theorist - view mother should present world in manageable chunks to infant to facilitate healthy development. Problems arise if too perfect or not good enough.
• GROUNDED THEORY, Approach to analysing qualitative data that stresses immersion with the data to generate ideas and theories – a number of versions from very strict coding styles to more recent constructionist forms.
• GROUP, Varying definitions, often a set of people gathered together for some common purpose. Social representations theory suggests have common representations (circular). Groups vary in size, style, purpose and form. Relation individual & groups differs across theories.
• GROUP MIND, Crowds have mental life qualitatively different from the collective separate individuals. Concept lost favour with individualistic experimental psychology, very strong in psychodynamic theory, mix ups between individuals, unconscious alignments and ‘groupishness’ alignments of emotional states, unconscious recognized, & communicated.

H

• HEGEMONY, refers to the dominance of one social class over others.
• HERMENEUTICS, is the art or science of interpretation of meanings and representations. Hermeneutic epistemology considers qualitative methods analysing symbolic processes & individual meanings. Epistemology, nomothetic, idiographic, transformational
• HERMENEUTIC CIRCLE is to understand whole need to understand parts, but to understand parts need to understand whole! Therefore all understanding remains relative. Mead suggests development of self also hermeneutic circle.
• HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY, Emphasizes need to work from and with lived actual subjective experiences of people - rather than method and objectivity - can be seen as a reaction to behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
• HYPOTHESIS, a testable statement about a relationship between two or more variables is important as it directs investigation towards specific data.
• HYPOTHETICAL CONSTRUCT, Something which is assumed to exist as a factor which explains observable phenomenon.

I

• ID, Freud - aspect of instinctual biological drives - pleasure principle - needs controlling.
• IDENTIFICATION, Experience of ‘being’ the other – inter-subjectivity interpenetrated by other - loosened boundaries between people.
• IDENTITY, Sense of self, awareness of being unique individual - some suggest we have a Personal identity and a Social Identity. There is a major debate re whether this is contained *and self-sufficient, or constructed - a discursive product.
• IDENTITY PROJECTS, Harre, Giddens, high reflexivity facilitates efforts to achieve self directed developments, more important in modern times. See Postmodernism
• IDEOLOGY, Patterns/systems of ideas and beliefs people hold and represent reality, support power relations.
• IDEOGRAPHIC, Method concerned with understanding at the individual level, for example introspection. See nomothetic
• INDEXICAL PROPERTIES, Of discourse implies meaning alters with context, thus meaning is a joint accomplishment, See discourse psychology.
• INDIVIDUAL(ISM), focus on individual as separate self - sufficient entities, contained, modern western society ideology, concentrates on Agency, plays down social, see identity, social construction, Hobbes & Locke
• INSTINCT THEORIES, Behaviour is based on innate biologically based - usually sexual desires.
• INSTITUTION, Organised element of society ‘regularly occurring and continuously repeated patterns of activity or social practice, e.g. family, capitalism, bureaucracy is viewed as a Process or as a Structure - concept as bridge between individual and social levels.
• INTERDEPENDENCE THEORY, Type of exchange theory (Thibut & Kelly) suggests rewards must outweigh the costs of a relationship. Predicts individual with a favourable history will be more demanding. INTERNAL OBJECTS, constructions of people and relationships which have been introjected. See introjections, psychodynamics
• INTERNAL VALIDITY, with observation - includes observer not understanding the situation enough and missing important activities, the records will not be accurate. With experimentation, includes similar difficulties interpreting results due to experimenter effects (unwittingly conveying expected outcomes to participants) and demand characteristics/ evaluation apprehension (doing what one thinks is required or acceptable)., See validity, external validity.
• INTERPERSONAL PSYCHOLOGY, Psychology concentrating on impact of relationships between people, includes Object Relations theory as centres on carer and child.
• INTERPRETIVE PARADIGM, Very broadly used term - sometimes used to refer to anything non positivist – sometimes confused with constructionism. Interpretist paradigm is based on humanist assumptions, focuses on individual meaning. ,
• INTERPRETIVE EXPLANATION Aims to understand meanings of events based on reason and experience rather than searching for simple causation effects. Some argue can only judge if sacrifice authority of explanations, Bruner suggests the interpretive process is important.
• INTERPRETIVE REPERTOIRE, Defined as ‘systematically related sets of terms often used with stylistic and grammatical coherence and organised around one or more central metaphors’) as preferred by Potter & Wetherell. Some prefer the term discourses as the broader term gives more scope. There are concerns about the restrictions of ‘local use’ of Interpretive Repertoires. Potter (1997) suggests it is more difficult to make clear judgements concerning the boundaries of particular repertoires outside constrained institutional setting such as science.
• INTERSUBJECTI VITY, Ability to recognise the subjective nature of others – an assumption that others experience similar consciousness.
• INTRAPSYCHIC PSYCHOLOGY, Such as theories of Freud & Klein, centres on internal workings of subject, psyche relatively unaffected by reality and prone to splitting etc.
• INTROJECTION, the taking in of others and relationships - internalising external world (either ‘real’ O.R. or fantasies Freud).
• INTROSPECTION, are First person accounts and self reports particularly of ones perception of own consciousness and experience.

L

• LADDERING, Technique to find central constructs, choose higher order constructs.
• LANGUAGE, Differing views; Structuralist - system of abstract symbols, transport system rule based.Versus social constructionist - language as medium of culture, active, rhetorical & constitutive. Functionalist model - rational view - symbolic interactions., See social constructionism, Chomsky, Mead & Vygotsky, Symbolic interactionalism, Discourse psychology.
• LEARNED HELPLESSNESS, Lack of contingency between responses and outcomes leads to apathy and depression (particularly if experienced in early development.) If placed later in a situation which can be controlled, may fail to learn (try) that it has control.

M

• MANAGERIALIST/ MANAGERIALISM, A mindset which glorifies hierarchy, control, technology, and the role of the manager - Often used as a term to emphasise the power relations and assumptions in research that takes the views of the management as paramount.,
• MEANING, what is signified or conveyed by a word, action or idea.
• MEANINGFULNESS, what makes sense, including value attached to, relevance & engagement - leads to vitality. Sources - bodily needs, childhood, religion, family and work.
• MEMBERSHIP GROUP, collection of people with which we are currently present, may be very temporary, (used a lot in experiments), reference groups, open/closed groups, group mind.
• METAPHYSICS, is a Philosophy that deals with forces that cannot be experienced by the senses.
• METAPHOR, Figurative use of one term to aid understanding of another - can enlighten and transform thinking but also obscure or constrain (e.g. Computer metaphor of brain). Also - Jaynes proposes metaphor itself useful basis for understanding consciousness.
• MINORITY INFLUENCE, Phenomena when a small number of people can persuade and influence a much larger group. Mauss suggests single minorities deviate from majority in terms of beliefs, but double minorities also may be categorized as out groups and are therefore less influential. Moscovici suggests minority influence may be latent (indirect) - leading to conversion, or manifest (direct) - leading to compliance without real conviction.,
• MOI, Mauss - idea two aspects to self - moi as sense of consciousness versus personne,
• MODERNITY, **Different classes of, but usually referring to high technology, extensive communications including media and western individualist ideology & secularism., See postmodernism, ‘late modern age’,
• MODEL, Recreation of aspects of society, in words, diagrams or symbols, which helps to identify key relations, beware of implicit assumptions,
• MODEL OF PERSON, A set of assumptions regarding the underlying base of what makes up a person, including whether autonomous or determined, cognitive or rule-following; often implicit within a theory or perspective.
• MODES OF MIND, aspects of consciousness that have differing range and quality - development of sense of space and time. E.g. Point, Line, Construct and Transcendent, includes intellectual versus value sensing modes, and concept of core constructs.
• MODE OF SCIENCE, Particular form of studying a subject, including assumptions regarding epistemology and ontology, and suggesting therefore differing views as to purpose of social psychology, what should be offered to whom., See natural, moral and critical modes of science.
• MORAL MODE OF SCIENCE, by assuming intentional agents, that behaviour will be influenced x beliefs and meanings - opens social psychology to enhancing and enlightening individuals - primarily Humanistic perspective.
• MORAL RELATIVISM, Any moral system can be as valid as any other given a particular standpoint, implies there may be no good or bad - criticism of taking too relativist a view. (Most relativists suggest this is a false argument, all have values but these need to be made explicit. See relativism, realism, social constructionist.
• MUTUALISM, meaning a result of human activities, emerges from forms of life, collective and social in nature. Meanings usage change according to context + words as actions, See social constructionism
• MUTUAL CONSTRUCTION, two way process, interdependence,

N

• NEO POSITIVISM, Sometimes called Realist or Managerial approach - also termed ‘logical positivism’. Focus is on symbolic logic and to take the scientific approaches of physics as a key criterion.
• NOMOLOGICAL NETWORK, A ‘lawful’ network which attempts to link theory with observable reactions, includes a theoretical framework of what you are trying to measure, empirical framework for how to measure and a specification of the linkages amongst and between these two.
• NOMOTHETIC, Quantitative method aimed at measurement of samples, making generalizations and aiming for cause and effect.
• NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR, is all aspects of self-presentation including dress, movements and eye-contact etc, which may influence a communication process. Discussion whether this is communication, code or signs. Goffman suggests NVB is ‘given off’ and important as (mostly) not deliberate.
• NORMATIVE, Paradigm often associated with positivism - Objective ontology and epistemology. Measuring causal relationships within a theoretical Framework – objective: experiments, control, measurement and statistics.
• NORMS, Acquired frames of reference of what is ‘normal’ or acceptable - some are considered to be descriptive, others prescriptive.

O

• OBJECT RELATIONS, School of psychodynamics - tendency towards more constructionist approach - focus on inter-personal aspects of development, assumes infants ‘people seekers’, relating a goal in itself and internal psyche formed by real relating/people.
• ONTOLOGY, ‘reality’ or view of what exists to be studied - Does ‘reality’ exist ‘out there’ or is it a product of our mind? Is what we call reality objective or is it a product of our cognition?

P

• PARADIGM, a combination of theory and method, a framework of interlocking assumptions about the proper aims and methods for gaining information - Kuhn suggests paradigm shifts occur more as ‘revolution’ than linear progress.
• PARANOID-SCHIZOID POSITION, Kleinian theory - early mental state of infant, splits good and bad aspects of experience and projects bad on to external world which becomes persecutory.
• PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY, Society in which men dominate and control women, underlies Freudian theory (importance of father figure), and an aspect influencing most theories, power relationships etc.
• PERSONAL CONSTRUCT, Theory & Method - gain understanding of Particular experiences. Bipolar Dimensions to discriminate world. Constructs have focus and range of convenience, organised and interrelated.
• PERSONAL RELATIONSHIP, Important contacts with others within which those concerned feel the relationship has expectation of intimate growth, less focus on roles and more on expectations., Social relationship, social interaction.
• PERSONNE, Mauss - social concepts of what means to be person - different to Moi, See Moi
• PERSPECTIVE, Broad conceptual and methodological approach towards a discipline, includes set of overarching assumptions re ontology, method, See theories, discipline, paradigm, models.
• PHANTASY, Unconscious fantasy, important in psychodynamics.
• PHENOMENOLOGY, is the study of people’s subjective awareness, also how these experiences generate knowledge. Phenomenological approaches tend to emphasise need for some distancing and ‘bracketing’ of the self from the other. Describe rather than interpret - but term is used broadly.
• POLARISATION is the tendency of groups to come to final decision which is more extreme (but in the same direction as) the original individual tendencies). Explanations for this include social comparison, information influence and social identity theory.
• POLITENESS PRINCIPLE, In conversation we are concerned with the ‘face’ of ourselves and others.
• POPULATION, POPULATION FRAME is the total group of items/people of interest to the research. A listing of all the elements in a population.,
• POSITIVISM, Approach to science and explanations which holds that psychology can and should exclude social values. And should operate as a ‘natural’ science, concentrating on what is objectively observable and measurable..,
• POSTMODERNISM, Different definitions - usually - time period when ‘honeymoon’ with modernity over. Times of rapid change, fragmented communities, and beliefs undermined. No single truth, multiple ideas abound - Impacts on self, consciousness., see modernism, saturated self, late modern age
• POSTMODERN PARADIGM, Subjective ontology and epistemology. Focus on language - Relativism and post-structuralism. Deconstruction is key.
• POSTMODERN SELF, View self in west has become a source of meaning in itself due to multiple-contexts experienced with possible mixture of disillusionment, boredom, confusion and celebration. Differing views of impact. See Gergen, saturated self, Baumeister, Giddens, Identity Projects, Cushman, Smith.
• POWER, Ability to act, control or influence and is the medium through which conflicts of interest are ultimately resolved. Power operates at many levels and has varying sources. Feminists argue is inseparable part of identity. Foucault suggests power not owned, is a process, people viewed as products of power. Power is relational as enacted through everyday relationships and dependent upon position others take up. Power places people in society, influences allocation of resources and ascertains which attempts are legitimised. Embedded in society, ideology - is resisted, Foucault.
• PRAGMATICS, is a branch of linguistics studying how language is used in communication.
• PRAGMATISM, knowledge of self grounded in social activity (also ‘practical’ application), Dewey, Mead.
• PROCESS (MODEL), Sequence of events over time. Model depicts interactions and changes on a temporal base (usually some reference to a timeline, often not specific).
• PROJECTION, transferring own (hidden/defensive) motivations onto others - e.g. sexual, see defence mechanisms
• PROJECTIVE IDENTIFICATION, Trying out ‘being the other - primitive form of unconscious communication - form of defence - can lead to shared subjective knowledge - mix ups and confusions, identification, defence mechanisms.
• PROTOTYPE, is a typical ‘example’ of a category. Debate regarding whether are exemplars, descriptive lists or summary representations - are important in perceiving and categorizing objects and behaviour. Also in Kleinian theory innate unconscious phantasies that organize social interaction., Rosche, & Barselou in Roche & Bruce.
• PSYCHOANALYSIS, Method derived from Freud, now varied styles but mostly based on therapy aimed at understanding defence mechanisms to point where patient can see and accept. Using transference, counter transference, resistance analysis, free association, dream analysis. See psychodynamics, defence mechanisms
• PSYCHODYNAMICS, General term for an approach grounded in Freudian theory and psychoanalytic findings. Assumptions of dynamic unconscious motivations and unconscious determination, irrationality and defence mechanisms, the importance of early development in forming internalised versions of people and relationships and influence later life. , 3 main schools - Freudian, Kleinian and Object Relations
• PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, is a social psychological discipline grounded in western individualism and cognitive/science departments at Universities.
• PSYCHOSIS, in psychodynamics – is a state of having a weak ego and difficulty maintaining distinction between reality and fantasy. Borderline psychoses occur where this applies to certain parts of life but not others. Others refer to psychoses as psychiatric disorders (difficult behaviour or personality as defined by individual or society) which have no obvious brain/physical cause) - functional., See psychodynamics, and discussion re Postmodernism and increase in psychoses.

Q

• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH, Interpretive study of specified issues, where researcher is accepted as central to sense made, accepts need for reflexive analysis, often more ‘naturalistic’ and accessible to meanings than quantitative research - Includes observation, interviews, personal constructs, action research, discourse anal.,
• QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH, Concerned with data and ‘facts’ rather than meaning and usually analysis of large samples to look for patterns and develop generalisations. Includes experimentation, descriptive statistics, some questionnaires, and epidemiology (statistics regarding incidence within a population).

R

• RATIONALISM, one element in the alliance ranged against religion and metaphysics, was the position pioneered in France by Descartes. This is the classical position of subjectivism, which takes thinking as an active process that instils order in the world.,
• REALISM, Structured world exists independent of concepts and theories, attempt to explain these can be tested.
• REALITY, Independent and objective ‘truths’ sometimes confusion between Reality (Truth) versus falsehood, Reality (Materiality) versus illusion, Reality (Essence) versus construction (social constructionists arguments often rejected as first two are mapped onto others, Relativism Essentialism
• REIFICATION, is treating an abstract concept, e.g. intelligence, as if it has an independent existence.
• REFERENCE GROUP, group which is used as reference even when not present and even if not a member (e.g. may aspire to be a member).
• REFLEXIVITY, Process of examining or trying to understand oneself and ones experience. Also important is researcher reflexivity, particularly in qualitative methodologies where the researcher is accepted as central to sense made of study and should include this as part of process – the process aids transparency.
• RHETORIC, persuasion and argument, style of speaking/oratory - idea that every discourse is posing itself to counter an alternative argument.

S

• SAMPLE, is a subset of the population - A selection system that takes examples/ occurrences from a larger population. In normative science desire is to gain a representative sample – e.g. which can be said to reflect the larger population.
• SATURATED SELF, Gergen - over use of introjection, increases in technical and communication possibilities lead to changes in consciousness and potential for fragmentation.
• SCIENCE, varying definitions, including: systematic, public, objective, replicable and predictive forms of - natural, moral and critical; Important is debate considering whether psychology is a science, and if so of what type. Linked to arguments of objectivity versus interpretation, cause and effect versus understanding.
• SELF-IMAGE, are beliefs we hold about ourselves, not always consciously articulated
• SELFISH GENE, Notion that genes code for nervous systems that produce the behaviour that facilitates genes perpetuation.
• SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY, Festinger - roots in symbolic interactionism and influence of Lewin, stress socializing process in groups - drive to validate our opinions and abilities by comparison with others, leads to tendency to conformity.
• SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM, People and society are merged, emergent, fluid and changing. Views a person as distributed across relational and social field - Mind not a fixed essence but built from the symbolic resources of a culture. Opposite to individualism - (mutualism) Has roots in socialism and pragmatics. Various forms, underlying thread is concern with the processes by which human abilities, experiences, commonsense and scientific knowledge are both produced in, and reproduce, human communities.
• SOCIAL FEEDBACK, individuals derive information from others and they as children receive most feedback, as adults more subtle, can influence our self concept.
• SOCIAL IDENTITY, Proposed move from individual frame of reference to perceiving ourselves as a member of a particular group, with the characteristics of that group.
• SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY, Tajfel - view psychological processes qualitatively transformed in a group - move from a personal to a social identity (with characteristics of that group). Process of self categorization, labelling, depersonalization and self stereotyping, self esteem bound up with group fortune, collective attributes.
• SOCIAL INTERACTION, Awareness of communication with another person some consider relationships are built up from this. Interactions tend to be strongly tied to rules, norms, face-saving etc.
• SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP, Broad term for variety of social contacts which may have differing provisions or functions (e.g. attachment, social integration, nurturance, reliable alliance). Involves interaction but generally distinguished from personal relationship in that no expectation of intimate growth.
• SOCIOLOGICAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, Social psychological discipline grounded in sociology - Marx & Weber etc, and social science departments of Universities.
• SOCIALIZATION, is the integration of a person into the particular society he/she is living in, shaping according to roles, norms and values of a society or group. Main agents are family, media, peer groups, workplaces and surrounding discourses.
• SOURCE CRITICISM, A historiographic method used to help interpret texts when faced with contradictory or uncertain statements from biased sources, or sources reporting on spatially or temporally distant events.It sets up criteria for the objective evaluation and hermeneutic interpretation of data the theoretical interest is in the factual or real representation of events, as opposed to a critical interpretation which is interested in the comparative distortions of information
• SPEECH ACTS, Austin - Utterances both state things and do things - talk is also an action, e.g. saying I love you changes relationship, saying ‘I do’ in church…
• STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS, James - apparent continuity and flow of consciousness, includes continual change and unique thoughts - theatre of simultaneous possibilities’.
• STRUCTURE, ‘Shape’ (building analogy) - how different parts of society relate to e.o. including processes and relations, divisions - often limit or constrain action of individuals and groups,
• SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM, Meanings derived from social interaction and modified through interpretation. Meaning found through symbols, signs and language, and our ability to take the position of others.
• SYSTEMS THEORY, Views families and relationships as coherent and integrated whole with homeostasis often occurring to maintain stability. Influence one aspect of the system and the whole is affected. Systems can be open (escalating) or closed (maintained). Includes feedback and phenomena of conflict detouring.

T

• THEORY, System of ideas, varying in scope, attempts to explain/centre on particular aspects, or to denote a way of approaching a particular topic (e.g. discourse theory). Theories in science should be a statement of relationships between factors or variables - needs to have explanatory power.
• THROWNESS, Heidegger - situated freedom - view we are all agents within the constraints of the situation we are (born) in.
• TRANSFERENCE, Where emotional feelings which characterize a previous relationship in early life are subsequently transferred onto someone else in a later relationship.
• TRANSFORMATIONAL EPISTEMOLOGY, form of understanding aimed at qualitative analysis, centering on reflexive awareness and emphasizing agency, Hermeneutic, epistemology, nomothetic, idiographic.
• TRUE SELF, Winnicott - true self emerges from activities with mother as gradually separates self from not and other; experience of self is often partial as true self may include impermissible desires and goals. False self often develops if not ‘good enough’ mothering as a defence - compliancy. See good enough mother.

U

• UNCONSCIOUS, Can refer to ‘not conscious’ i.e. medical term, or to refer to aspects of personality and motivation of which we are unaware i.e. not attended to. Most contentious definition is of Freud’s ‘dynamic unconscious’ which suggests hidden and unacceptable motives drive or determine behaviour.

W

• WORK, Expended effort that is considered by the individual to be work rather than ‘pleasure’ - Paid or unpaid labour, Socially constructed, meaning changes by time and culture, and by individual and context. Work practices and places can become Institutions and are key sites for individuals taking on roles & potential constraint of activities. Research in work areas often termed as ‘occupational’ yet studies effects of unemployment etc. Many theories from within social psychology used, including equity theory, social identity theory etc., See institutions, Debate over definitions, particularly issue of paid/unpaid, importance of former in modern western society.

Z

• ZERO SUM GAME, Situation where if one participant gains another loses because only a fixed amount to go round., Implications for interdependence, particularly if individuals/groups believe this is the case.
• ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT, Level of achievement child can reach with some support from an adult; children differ in size of zones.